Women in Refrigerators Redux: Fridging, Sexualisation and Rape in Comic Books

An essay re-examining the debate on the treatment of women in comics.

By Bernard O’Shea

03/07/14

 

A number of years ago I was on-line reading about the history of Green Lantern when I stumbled across the term, ‘Women in Refrigerators.’ It directed me to a webpage headed up by famed comic book writer Gail Simone, who in March 1999 coined the phrase. The term was a direct reference to the treatment of female characters in comic books. Simone was able to put together an extensive list of female characters that had been depowered, raped or killed in comic books. The webpage was set up by Simone to debate the issue with the wider comic book community.

The actual term ‘Women in Refrigerators,’ is a direct reference to Green Lantern Vol. 3 issue 54. In that particular issue, Green Lantern’s girlfriend Alex DeWitt is strangled by the villain Major Force and her remains are stuffed in the refrigerator of Green Lantern’s apartment for him to find when he returns from fighting some other rather forgettable bad guy. I was so intrigued by this debate that I purchased the back issue of Green Lantern in question. Upon reading the comic I thought it was the most gratuitous set up for a punch-up between a superhero and super-villain.

This disturbed me. I began looking at some of my favourite comics with a different perspective. I began to question, as a comic book fan, the serious inequalities in how male and female characters were utilised in stories.

In the fifteen years since the origin of ‘Women in Refrigerators,’ there are more women working in the superhero comic book genre. Female characters in comics today have moved away from the rigid gender stereotypes of previous decades. Despite these improvements over the years I believe comics continue to portray women in a chauvinistic and unequal manner. My views are not directed at any particular writer or creator but rather I feel an evaluation of the values of comic book storytelling when it comes to female characters is still relevant today as it was fifteen years ago.

Modern comic books originate in the period known as the Golden Age of the 1930s and ‘40s. The depiction of female characters during this time was a mixed bag. The comics of this era consisted mainly of pulp tales, genre magazines such as romance comics and the emerging superhero story. Romance comics portrayed females in rigid gender stereotypes, pulp magazines often depicted women in bondage, held at gun point or at the mercy of a villain and superhero comics portrayed females as heroines actively contributing to the war effort.[1]

If the 1930’s birthed one of the best known superheroes in ‘Superman,’ then it also provided the world with the best known female character in comics; Lois Lane. In the very beginning Lois Lane was portrayed as a no-nonsense assertive female character, who would berate Clark Kent for his ineptness and generally she was more progressive in her characterisation compared to her female contemporaries at the time.

That began to change in the 1950’s during the Silver Age of comics with the rise of the Comics Code Authority. In 1954 psychologist Fredric Wertham argued in his book, ‘Seduction of the Innocent,’ that comic books were a negative form of popular culture and influenced juvenile delinquency. Following a series of Senate hearings the Comic Code Authority was created to regulate the content of comic books published in the United States. The code prohibited violence, gore, nudity, sexual innuendo, seduction, rape and illicit sexual relations amongst other things. It also placed greater emphasis on respect for authority and a strict moral code.

This impacted greatly on female characters in comic books. During the 1950’s Lois Lane lost all the charm of her original character and was reduced to being a regular damsel in distress and starring in such titles as, ‘Superman’s Girlfriend Lois Lane,’ which saw her main motivation in life become a quest to marry Superman. Readers would have to wait until John Byrne re-launched the Superman series in the 1980s before Lois Lane would return to being a character of real note.

During the ‘50s Marvels first female superhero of the Silver Age[2]  also suffered similar tribulations. The irony in naming Sue Storm, of the Fantastic Four ‘The Invisible Girl,’ was not because she had the powers of invisibility, but rather that her character was largely invisible for the first twenty-four years of her publication. Sue Storm was more often than not depicted as a damsel in distress for the rest of the team or fretting over why Reed Richards wouldn’t take her out. The treatment of female characters at this point underlines the inequalities in comic book writing. Women were seen as powerless, inept, and incompetent. They were objects of desire or motivators for heroics from male heroes.

During the 1960s and ‘70s mainstream comic books began to reflect feminist tensions of the area. In 1968 DC Comics responded to a slump in sales for Wonder Woman by introducing a depowered Wonder Woman who fought crime using marital arts under the name ‘Diana,’ and was dressed in a series of jumpsuits. Although the new image was in keeping with the counter-culture revolution of the time the change was unpopular with fans and the gender stereotypes remained. During Wonder Woman’s depowered run she fought crime as a mod, jostled with Lois Lane for the affections of Superman and in one story avoided arrest by promising to go out on a date with Bruce Wayne.[3] Gloria Steinman founder of ‘Ms.’ Magazine concluded that the modernisation of Wonder Woman was, “discouraging…a mere mortal who walked about in boutique clothes and took advice from a male mastermind.”[4] The handling of Wonder Woman at this time demonstrates that the male writing staffs in the mainstream comic book industry were largely bankrupt of ideas to progress popular female characters.

In the mid ‘70s a historical event in comics proved to be the jumping off point for the ‘Women in the Refrigerators,’ syndrome that would creep into comics in the decades that followed. ‘The Night Gwen Stacy Died,’ story from Amazing Spiderman #121-122 marked the end of the Silver Age of comics and signalled the beginning of the ‘dead girlfriend,’ story device used to service male hero’s emotional storylines. Gerry Conway who penned the story felt Gwen Stacy was not integral to the character of Spiderman and when the decision was made to kill off a major character, her death would create the biggest reaction from the fans. Conway has gone on record to say “Gwen in the comics…was much more interesting after she was killed than she ever was as a character.”[5] Perhaps if previous writers had invested more time and effort into Gwen Stacy as a three dimensional character then she would have had more longevity as a character. The fan reaction to Gwen Stacey’s death gave writers and artist’s credence that in killing female characters not only could you generate immense shock value but it would draw sufficient attention to a title and provide a boost to comic book sales.

Death of Kathy Kane Detective Comics #485

The Bronze Age beginning in the 1980s signaled a darker period for women in comic books. During this decade a number of high profile female characters fell victim to the ‘women in refrigerator,’ syndrome. In 1979, Batwoman, who was introduced to DC Canon in 1956 as a means to quell Wertham’s claims that Batman and Robin were homosexual, was murdered by the Bronze Tiger. Batwoman had been popular with fans, despite her intermittent use of by writers over the years. The creative teams of the Batman comics resented Batwoman because of her origin as a love interest for Batman. In 1979, she was killed off by the editorial staff on the Batman titles who felt she was redundant next to the even more popular Batgirl. During the ‘Crisis on Infinite Earths,’ story Batwoman was completely removed from DC canon. It was as if she never existed.

In 1980, Jean Grey one of the original Uncanny X-Men and as the character, ‘Phoenix,’ one of the most powerful individuals in the Marvel universe was killed off during the ‘Dark Phoenix,’ storyline. The original ending of the story was something of great debate. Writer Chris Claremont wanted Jean Grey to survive and following a psychic lobotomy be released into the custody of the X-Men. It was a fate perhaps worse than death. Editor Jim Shooter made the final call and decided because of the genocide the character would have to go. To date, across comic books, movies and television adaptations of the X-Men, Jean Grey has been killed off over 20 times.

In 1985, Supergirl was killed off and removed from DC comics’ continuity during the maxi-series, ‘Crisis on Infinite Earths.’ The decision was made by DC’s vice president/executive editor Dick Giordano who felt the character was only created to take advantage of the sales of Superman comics, and never really added anything to the mythos of the Superman character.[6]

In 1988, DC Comics published the ‘Killing Joke,’ considered by fans and critics as one of the greatest Batman stories ever it provided an origin story for the Joker but it also had major impact on DC comics continuity. In the story Barbara Gordon’s Batgirl is shot and paralysed by the Joker during the kidnapping of her father Commissioner Gordon. During her ordeal she is stripped naked and photographed, to create the means by which to torture the kidnapped Gordon. Fans have also long debated whether the Joker also raped Barbara Gordon. Recently, original inked artwork from the graphic novel has surfaced to cast the story in a more controversial light. The fact that violence is sexualised in this way shows the Joker’s actions are perhaps less ambiguous than first thought.

The backlash to the story articulated the point that the violence towards Barbara Gordon was too much. Critics felt it was another example of inherent misogyny of the male dominated comic book industry, in light of the relatively unequal violence faced by female characters.  Even Yvonne Craig who had played Batgirl in the 1960s Batman television series wrote a letter to DC Comics complaining about the treatment of the character. [7]

Although some people feel the ‘Killing Joke,’ was ground breaking in its approach personally speaking, I dislike the story, because of its treatment of Barbara Gordon. After the assault by the Joker, Barbara is taken to hospital where in one panel the reader is told Barbara’s legs are completely ‘useless,’ and ‘putting it bluntly,’ she will spend the rest of her days in a wheelchair. The characters fate is confirmed in one panel. That seemed rather unfair to me. It’s also the last we see of Barbara for the rest of the story. It always seemed to me that the assault on Barbara was another example of using violence towards female characters as a means to motivate and spur the hero into action.

If I had read the story when it first came out I would have felt this was a sad end for the once popular Batgirl. Subsequently, writer Alan Moore has expressed regret of his treatment of Barbara Gordon in the ‘Killing Joke,’ calling it, “shallow and ill-conceived.” [8] As it turns out she became very popular as the ‘Oracle,’ character and perhaps was a much stronger character post The Killing Joke particularly in the ‘Birds of Prey,’ series. She did remain in her wheelchair for over twenty years despite the death and return of numerous male heroes such as the Flash and Superman and the crippling of Batman and his subsequent recovery in that time period. The Batman series during the 1990s and noughties continued to feature female characters who would succumb to an unwarranted demise, including Dr. Sondra Kinsolving who after healing Batman’s broken back was driven insane and Vesper Fairchild who was murdered as part of the Bruce Wayne: Fugitive storyline.  At this point you would be blind to see the inequalities between both genders in superhero stories.

The fates of all the aforementioned female superhero characters were referenced in the original ‘Women in Refrigerators,’ website and have been debated at length ever since. Today most if not all of these characters (bar Gwen Stacy) have been reinstated to their respective comic book universes. Jeff Mace in response to the original ‘Women in Refrigerators,’ debate argued that when it comes to most superhero comic books the main protagonists are male. To alter or kill off the main character would create issues for the marketability of a comic book. Therefore, when a title requires a shake up, writers have no options and it is usually the most prominent female character that undergoes a drastic change.[9] He also argued that the dynamic cuts both ways, comic books with a female protagonist featured male characters who were the victims of extreme violence and that the element of tragedy was central to heroic storytelling.[10]

Mace does make a convincing argument and there are numerous examples of male characters who have died or been the victims of extreme violence in comic books e.g. Thunderbird from Uncanny X-Men, Jason Todd,  Blue Beetle, Superman to name a few. However, while these male characters may be injured or killed they are more likely to be returned to their original state or be retconned into a more relevant character. Women on the other hand are more likely to remain injured or dead. You only have to look at the length of time Jean Grey was deceased for, only to be brought back when Marvel wanted to launch a profitable series reuniting the original X-Men (X-Factor), or the time Batwoman spent out of DC canon before being reintroduced as a way of developing more diverse characters by DC Comics in 2006.

It is a tired and lazy writing cliché to kill off supporting characters and love interests just to create significance for the main character or a tragic twist to a story. In this sense, I continue to believe female characters have fared worse than their male counterparts in comic books. More worryingly, I feel another aspect of the ‘Women in Refrigerators,’ concept has become more prominent in contemporary comic books, namely the sexualisation of female characters and the issue of rape.

The sexualisation of women in comic books has been a long standing issue within the medium. From the beginning of the superhero genre women have been objectified in ways that go beyond being depicted as a love interest. Women are often depicted with unrealistic proportions, generally they are depicted as having the same body type, they are posed in hyper-sexualised ways; large thighs, backs arched accentuating the behind and their clothing is overtly sexualised and revealing.

The evolution of Wonder Woman’s costume is a case in point; the costume can be described as impractical at best, in 1941 the character was depicted wearing a mini skirt, bustier, and knee high boots. A year later the skirt evolved into shorts which remained for the following decade. A slight re-design in the 1950s meant her back was no longer exposed. The 1960s introduced the short lived Mod look. The 1970s and ‘80s brought slight re-designs of aspects of the costume including the switch to star spangled hot pants. During the 1990s the costume went through several periods of re-design however the constant throughout was that artists continued to depict Wonder Woman’s costume exposing more and more flesh.[11]

The hyper sexualised 'Witchblade.'

Wonder Woman’s costume highlights a distinct inequality when it comes to the depiction of men and women in comics. Men may comment on this that male characters are also depicted with unrealistic body types and proportions. That is correct, but look at any comic book cover that features a female character and their will more often than not be depicted in a sexualised pose with less clothing than the male characters. You only have to consider some of the female characters present in comic books today and their costumes e.g. Psylocke from the X-Men, She-Hulk, Emma Frost, Power Girl, Star Sapphire, Starfire, Witch Blade, Shanna the She Devil, Red Sonja etc. the list could go on. At one point Marvel Comics even produced an annual swimsuit edition featuring mainly its female characters in a bikini shoot organised by Iron Man/Tony Stark (another character with questionable relationships with women).

The risk in objectifying or sexualising women in such ways is that it begins to develop negative and unrealistic messages in relation to women, men, relationships and body image. The fear is that readers begin to adopt these fantasy worlds as a reality and people begin to see sex as an entitlement rather than something that happens between people in a positive relationship.

I am not saying sex should not be part of a good story, but often the sexualisation in an artist’s drawings or the sexual nature of some writing gets in the way of the actual story. Do we really need to see large parts of dialogue between She-Hulk and her supporting cast while she is having a shower? I understand that writers do this to titillate the reader however; there is a thin line between titillation and the degrading of women. I also feel that mainstream comic books are slow to evolve and still portray women, and sex, through a misogynist lens.

What particularly concerns me about misogynous values in comics is in relation to the issue of rape. Whenever the majority of comic book titles feature crime fighting superheroes the issue of rape will inevitably figure. It is a serious crime with long term consequences. However, I do not feel rape and particularly the rape of women has ever been properly explored in comic books.




Sue Dibney is raped in Identity Crisis #2

  While searching on-line in respect of the issue of rape in comic books the common thought that prevails is that rape does not feature all that much in comic books. On the contrary, I believe it has been used and over used to the point where I am not even sure whether some writers understand what it means to introduce rape into a storyline. For those who read this and think I am making a mountain out of a mole hill, here is a short list of female characters who have been the victims of rape in comic books; The attempted rape of Katherine Summers (Cyclops Mother), Star Fire from the Teen Titans, The Silk Spectre I from Watchmen, Betty Ross/Banner from the Incredible Hulk, Christine Helvin from Troublemakes, Mirage from the Teen Titans, The attempted rape of Evie Hammond in V for Vendetta, Ms. Marvel, Shelley from The Crow, The Black Cat, The ‘magical impregnation,’ of Power Girl, Sue Dibney the wife of Elongated Man, Lady Flash, Demolitia (Superman Villain), Judith Benoir (The Creeper), Pix (Batman Villain), Katie Deauxma from Kick-Ass and Windfall from the Suicide Squad.

A comprehensive list for those who feel rape isn’t a common issue in comic books. I have included a number of ‘attempted,’ rape cases in the list because I feel that as these stories were published at a time when the Comics Code Authority still reigned and the ‘attempted,’ part had to be included in order to get the respective issues passed.

Rape is a serious crime and I do not feel in comic books it has been properly handled. When you explore the circumstances of some of the sexual assaults against female characters then you begin to understand why I feel there are serious inequalities when it comes to this issue. One of the most famous cases of the rape of a mainstream female superhero is Ms. Marvel. The incident occurred in Avengers #200 (October, 1980). Carol Danvers/Ms. Marvel was kidnapped by Marcus-the son of Avenger villain ‘Immortus,’ brainwashed, seduced and impregnated. She gave birth to a son who rapidly aged into another version of Marcus who takes Ms. Marvel to an alternate dimension without the Avengers making a scene.

Comic Book historian Carol A. Strickland famously wrote an essay entitled, ‘The Rape of Ms. Marvel,’ criticising the storyline calling it “rape by another name.”[12] Former Ms. Marvel scribe and X-Men writer, Chris Claremont readdressed the issue in Avengers Annual #10 (1981), that issue saw the return of Ms. Marvel to Earth and her berating of her fellow Avengers for not preventing her kidnapping and ordeal. Although the word, ‘rape,’ is never used it is clear that Claremont was making an attempt to point out it was rape and the heroic Avengers had idly allowed it to happen.

Ms Marvel confronts the Avengers

The story line is disturbing in that it portrays a misogynist fantasy of romance. Remember the key elements of this story; Ms. Marvel is kidnapped, she becomes pregnant in mysterious circumstances, she gives birth to Marcus who then brainwashes her into leaving for the obligatory, ‘fairy tale,’ ending. Let’s be clear there is no relationship, Ms. Marvel’s wants, feelings and needs are not accounted for in the story. She is kidnapped and coerced into the relationship by Marcus and his technology. She is essentially used as a ‘mate,’ by Marcus to ensure his own survival. The very idea that Ms. Marvel, ‘gives birth,’ to her attacker is strange and parallels origin stories of demi-gods from classic mythology. Perhaps this reflects Marcus own image of himself, that he believes he is ‘god-like.’

Regardless of the reasons this is the type of relationship that women are constantly warmed about. A dominant, controlling male with the maturity levels of a child. The story reinforces medieval notions about masculinity, that committing rape reaffirms a man’s own sense of power and masculinity. Further more, the supporting cast are completely understanding and benign to the situation unfolding when they should be intervening. Even for a comic book the story is incredibly unrealistic. As a comic book fan, I certainly would not want younger readers viewing the story and thinking this was an appropriate or legitimate relationship between men and women. It is a disappointing episode in comic book history.




Demolitia

  Another contentious issue regarding rape in comics is its use as motivation for characters. The rape of a prominent female character is sometimes used to motivate the main protagonist in the story, or to instigate a showdown between the hero and villain. Rape is also sometimes used as part of a female characters origin. Demolitia from the Superman comics was gang raped by street thugs and this formed the motivation for her to become a masked villain. Another example, is Windfall from Suicide Squad, who underwent a serious sexual assault and ordeal. Windfall attends a party at a fraternity house, is drugged, raped by a number of individuals, photographed and the pictures are distributed on the internet. One of her attackers has a senator father, so the end result is that Windfall is expelled from College. Her subsequent revenge against her attackers led to her recruitment into the Suicide Squad.

The issue I have pertaining to both these characters is that the idea of a rape victim seeking violent revenge against their attackers is a clichéd and outdated device that should have been seen off with ‘70s cinema. Rape is a heinous crime and I feel that it is unsympathetic of the long term consequences to use it as the rationale for women becoming villains. The use of the ‘victim seeking revenge,’ device is misogynist because it boxes women off. It suggests that women are all inherently good and that they can only become a villain if they undergo some extreme trauma, that they cannot be ambitious, greedy, evil or deceitful like their male counterparts, in short, a truly three dimensional character.

The use of rape and the subsequent consequences of the characters actions are a further illustration of this point and the mishandling of rape in comic books. Both Demolitia and Windfall are victims, but where are the heroic figures to help them? Why is this the logical reasoning for them becoming villains?  Windfall in particular, goes through a severe ordeal, where it seems that those in authority in comic books turn a blind eye to rape, or worse still see it as being the fault of the woman. Why was Windfall expelled from college? Why did the creative team behind that story feel the need to include this specific element? was it appropriate? If Windfall is the victim why did she fare so badly?

Perhaps this highlights deeper ideas about rape in storytelling and how this could be seen as reflecting deeper societal values in respect of the issue. If we work from the basis that comic books are like modern mythology, let’s take a moment to explore rape in classic mythology. Unsurprisingly, rape does feature prominently in classic mythology, particularly in the myths surrounding several figures including; Apollo, Erichthonius, Romulus, Jupiter, Proserpina and Achillies.



The Rape of Proserpina-Bernini (1622)

 Rape features often in mythical narratives in the context of the creation of new hero, as a plot device for revenge, as an affirmation of male identity and as an extension of love. The Greeks and the Romans saw a connection between the desire to rape and the desire to win. By associating both desires with gods and heroes, the myths accentuate the virility and might of the rapist.[13]These myths and stories highlight that rape was tolerated and normalised in Ancient Rome. This is evidenced by the lack of a clearly defined Roman law on rape and the absence of a specific Latin term for rape.[14] If we look at mythology as being the building block for all future storytelling, then we can see there have always been inequalities in the portrayal of women and the use of violence and rape against them.

In respect of that it is important to acknowledge that men are also the victims of rape. This article in no way diminishes the fact that rape is a crime committed against both genders. However in the context of comic books the gender divide in respect of rape is very much one sided.



Mark Grayson is sexually assaulted in Invincible #110

 There are a certain number of male characters in comic books who have been raped; these include Starman, Batman, Nightwing and most recently Markus Grayson/Invincible. There is also a common theme running through all these serious sexual assaults. All these heroes have been raped by women. Why is that relevant? I want to be very sensitive in relation to this issue because I understand that rape no matter who the perpetrator is, is a traumatic event for the victim. However, in comic books I feel that it is unrealistic to only feature stories in which women are raped by men and men are raped by women. It does not reflect the issue of rape as a whole. I personally feel the depiction of a male character being raped by a female plays on a male fantasy where men like women to dominate them sexually. I am not writing in judgement but I am saying that I feel that there is already too much sexism and inaccurate depictions of women and relationships without introducing any more.

In respect of the issue of men being raped by other men in comic books, I could only find a handful of cases. These included the attempted rape of Kid Miracleman, the Invisible Man in The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen and the rape and murder of Deadshot’s son. There is also a common thread between all these characters as well, they are all villains.

I found this both interesting and frustrating; comic books depict the rape of women by male perpetrators, the rape of male superheroes by women and the rape of male villains by other men. I had wondered if this was some sort of formula that comic book creators had to follow, however when viewed in the context of classic mythology it becomes much simpler.



Miracleman #12

 If we consider that in Greco-Roman mythology the rape of women had been used to affirm a male hero’s masculinity, if then a male hero is raped by another male it is seen as degrading and emasculating. Essentially what is being said here is that the hero will lose their hero status. How can a superhero be ‘super,’ and ‘heroic,’ if they cannot defend themselves from a sexual assault? It also says that rape of men by a male perpetrator is such a heinous crime that it should only be fitting that it is used as punishment for the vilest villains. Then in respect of a man being raped by a female perpetrator it isn’t portrayed as negatively, because in comic books it is depicted as being based on the female’s desire for the male superhero and in the case of all the aforementioned male superheroes they had been drugged or incapacitated at the time of the sexual assault. Therefore their integrity as heroes and virile men remains intact.

The bottom line is that rape is rape no matter what the context. It is a heinous crime and it has long lasting and deep consequences for the victim. Comic Books remain a medium for telling dramatic stories that reflect real world issues but if this re-examination of the concept of women in refrigerators has shown anything it’s that not only do women continue to be treated as second class people in comic books but the sexist ideology that put them there has also skewed the portrayal of important real life issues when they are depicted in the superhero genre.

I want to be very clear, when I say, that this article is not an attack on the mainstream comic book publishers. In respect of the issues I have raised, I know there are also some wonderfully written and ground breaking comics that have been produced over the years and I have benefitted from reading those stories. However my point is that there are still so many things comic books have yet to get right.



Sarah Lancashire as Sgt Cawood in 'Happy Valley.'

 Recently in the UK, the BBC aired a series called ‘Happy Valley,’ written by Sally Wainwright. The series centred on Sgt Catherine Cawood (played by Sarah Lancashire) a police officer working in the Yorkshire Valleys who is still coming to terms with the suicide of her daughter. The series begins with the release of Tommy Lee Royce a convicted rapist who was involved in the death of Catherine’s daughter. Royce becomes embroiled in the kidnapping of a wealthy businessman’s daughter and Catherine is called into action.

The story explored many issues such as drug culture, crime, suicide and the long term consequences of rape. In the UK the show was heavily criticised for its graphic depiction of violence which was mainly aimed at female characters.[15] I was a fan of the show and I found it to be gripping, well written and well acted. What I found particularly interesting was the response to the violence in the show, the victims of the violence were mainly women but I felt it was no more violent than some shows I have watched with a male lead. I felt the public outcry may have been a result with people’s unease with violence being perpetrated against women. I was shocked on several occasions but what was truly refreshing was that it showed a range of characters with different strengths across both genders anchored by a very strong female lead. It was interesting, dramatic, insightful and believable.

I feel a TV show like, ‘Happy Valley,’ is relevant because it displays all the elements of good storytelling that I would like to see in good comic books. The characters in the story were three dimensional, there were no rigid stereotyping of genders, and both male and female characters had light and shade. The heroes had their flaws; their moments of weakness and likewise the villains had light and shade and at certain moments were almost sympathetic. Yes there was violence, and some extreme violence against women, but in the context of the TV series it reflected the dangers of police work and there were real consequences from these violent episodes. I feel because of the open ended nature of comic book storytelling e.g. 50 years of continuity the consequences of any issue become lost. Perhaps if all comics followed a maxi series format there would be greater depth of storytelling when there is a finite end in sight. That is one thing that television continues to hold over comic books.

This article is not calling for the establishment of a series of comic books featuring all female characters, rather I am suggesting the industry takes a look at where it is at fifteen years on from the ‘Women in Refrigerators,’ debate and try to make amends for the poor treatment of women over the years. I am saying there needs to be more investment into all female characters whether they are the main protagonist or in a supporting role. Too often the reaction to debates on women in comic books has been to create a new female hero. The results more often than not have been a female hero with male values projected onto them. Comic Books should be like all good literature, a mirror that you hold up to society. It should reflect a range of characters in a variety of situations with real feeling and pathos. Let’s try and make the comic book world a more equal world. I for one would buy that.

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[1] Mace, Jeff (1999) ‘Fan Jeff Mace Responds,’ - http://lby3.com/wir/r-jmace.html - Accessed 30/06/14

[2] Unknown, (2011) ‘The Evolution of Sue Storm,’ http://www.comicvine.com/articles/the-evolution-of-sue-storm/1100-143039/?comment_page=2 – Accessed 30/06/14

[3] Peter W. ‘Not Quite Mod: The new Diana Prince, 1968-1973’ in Darowski, Joseph J. (ed) (2013) ‘The Ages of Wonder Woman: Essays on the Amazon Princess in changing Times; Lee pp112-113.

[4] Ibid p114.

[5] Fischer, Travis (2013) ‘Spotlight on Gerry Conway http://www.comicbookresources.com/?page=article&id=47030 –Accessed 30/06/14

[6] Eury, Michael (June 2009). "When Worlds Collided! Behind the Scenes of Crisis on Infinite Earths". Back Issue (34) (TwoMorrows Publishing). pp. 34–39.

[7] "Up Close & Personal - Interviews". Yvonne Craig. Accessed 22/10/2012.

[8] Cochran, Shannon (2007). "The Cold Shoulder: Saving Superheroines from Comic-book Violence". Bitch.

[9] Mace, Jeff (1999) ‘Fan Jeff Mace Responds,’ - http://lby3.com/wir/r-jmace.html - Accessed 30/06/14

[10] Ibid.

[11] Cronin, Brian (2010) ‘Wonder Woman Throughout the years,’ -http://www.comicbookresources.com/?page=article&id=26963 – Accessed 30/06/14

[12] Strickland, Carol A., (1980) ‘The Rape of Ms. Marvel,’ http://carolastrickland.com/comics/msmarvel/ -Accessed 30/06/14

[13] Schodde, Carla (2013) ‘Rape Culture in Classic Mythology,’ -http://foundinantiquity.com/2013/10/06/rape-culture-in-classical-mythology/ -Accessed 30/06/14

[14] Ibid.

[15] Glennie, Alasdair (21 May 2014). "Did the BBC's brutal Happy Valley go too far? Viewers shocked by blood-soaked climax to violent TV drama". Mail Online. Associated Newspapers Ltd. Retrieved 29 May 2014.